Margarine, like butter, consists of water-in-fat emulsion, with tiny droplets of water dispersed uniformly throughout a fat phase which is in a stable crystalline form. Margarine has a minimum fat content of 80%, the same as butter, but unlike butter reduced-fat varieties of margarine can also be labeled as margarine.
Margarine can be used both for spreading and for baking and cooking. It is also commonly used as an ingredient in other food products, such as pastries and cookies, for its wide range of functionalities.
The basic method of making margarine
today consists of emulsifying a blend of hydrogenated vegetable oils with
skimmed milk, chilling the mixture to solidify it and working it to improve the
texture. Vegetable and animal fats are similar compounds with different melting
points. Those fats that are liquid at room temperature are generally known as oils.
The melting points are related to the presence of carbon-carbon double bonds in
the fatty acids components. Higher number of double bonds give lower melting
points.
Partial hydrogenation of typical
plant oil to a typical component of margarine. Most of the C=C double bonds are
removed in this process, which elevates the melting point of the product.
Commonly, the natural oils are
hydrogenated by passing hydrogen through the oil in the presence of a nickel catalyst, under controlled conditions. The addition of
hydrogen to the unsaturated bonds (alkenes double C=C bonds) results in
saturated C-C bonds, effectively increasing the melting point of the oil and
thus "hardening" it. This is due to the increase in van der Waals'
forces between the saturated molecules compared with the unsaturated molecules.
However, as there are possible health benefits in limiting the amount of
saturated fats in the human diet, the process is controlled so that only enough
of the bonds are hydrogenated to give the required texture. Margarines made in
this way are said to contain hydrogenated fat. This method is used today for
some margarines although the process has been developed and sometimes other
metal catalysts are used such as palladium. If hydrogenation is incomplete
(partial hardening), the relatively high temperatures used in the hydrogenation
process tend to flip some of the carbon-carbon double bonds into the
"trans" form. If these particular bonds aren't hydrogenated during
the process, they will still be present in the final margarine in molecules of trans
fats, the consumption of which has been shown to be a risk factor for cardiovascular
disease. For this reason, partially hardened fats are used less and less in the
margarine industry. Some tropical oils, such as palm oil and coconut oil, are
naturally semi solid and do not require hydrogenation.
Modern margarine can be made from
any of a wide variety of animal or vegetable fats, mixed with skim milk, salt,
and emulsifiers. Margarine and
vegetable fat spreads found in the market can range from 10 to 90% fat.
Depending on its final fat content and its purpose (spreading, cooking or
baking), the level of water and the vegetable oils used will slightly vary. The
oil is pressed from seeds and refined. It is then blended with solid fat. If no
solid fats are added to the vegetable oils, the latter undergo a full or
partial hydrogenation process to solidify them. The resulting blend is mixed
with water, citric acid, carotenoids, vitamins and milk powder. Emulsifiers such as lecithin help disperse the water phase evenly
throughout the oil, and salt and preservatives are also commonly added. This
oil and water emulsion is then heated, blended, and cooled. The softer tub
margarines are made with less hydrogenated, more liquid, oils than block margarine.
Three types of margarine are common:
- Soft vegetable fat spreads, high in mono- or polyunsaturated fats, which are made from safflower, sunflower, soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed, or olive oil.
- Margarine in bottle to cook or top dishes
- Hard, generally uncolored margarine for cooking or baking.
Blending
with butter.
Butter mixtures now make up a
significant portion of the table spread market. The brand "I Can't Believe
It's Not Butter!" spawned a variety of similarly named spreads that can
now be found on supermarket shelves all over the world, with names like
"Beautifully Butterfully", "Butterlicious", "Utterly Butterly",
and "You'd Butter Believe It". These butter mixtures avoid the
restrictions on labeling, with marketing techniques that imply a strong
similarity to real butter. Such marketable names present the product to
consumers differently from the required product labels that call margarine
"partially hydrogenated vegetable oil".
Nutrition
Discussions concerning the
nutritional value of margarines and spreads revolve around two aspects —
the total amount of fat, and the types of fat (saturated fat, trans
fat). Usually, a comparison between
margarine and butter is included in this context as well.
Amount
of fat.
The roles of butter
and traditional margarine (80% fat) are similar with respect to their energy
content, but low-fat margarines and spreads are also widely available.
Saturated
fat.
Saturated fatty acids have not been
conclusively linked to elevated blood cholesterol levels. Replacing saturated
and trans unsaturated fats with unhydrogenated monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats is more effective in preventing coronary heart disease in
women than reducing overall fat intake. See saturated fat and cardiovascular disease
controversy.
Vegetable fats can contain anything
between 7% and 86% saturated fatty acids. Liquid oils (canola oil, sunflower
oil) tend to be on the low end, while
tropical oils (coconut oil, palm kernel oil) and fully hardened (hydrogenated)
oils are at the high end of the scale. A margarine blend is a mixture of both
types of components. Generally, firmer margarines contain more saturated fat.
Typical soft tub margarine contains
10% to 20% of saturated fat. Regular butterfat contains 52 to 65% saturated fats.
Unsaturated
fat.
Consumption of unsaturated fatty
acids has been found to decrease LDL cholesterol levels and increase HDL
cholesterol levels in the blood, thus reducing the risk of contracting
cardiovascular diseases.
There are two types of unsaturated
oils: mono- and poly-unsaturated fats both of which are recognized as
beneficial to health in contrast to saturated fats. Some widely grown vegetable
oils, such as rapeseed
(and its variant canola),
sunflower, safflower,
and olive oils contain high amounts of unsaturated fats. During the
manufacture of margarine, some of the unsaturated fats may be converted into
hydrogenated fats or trans fats
in order to give them a higher melting point so that they are solid at room
temperatures.
Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated
fatty acids, which have been found especially good for health. This is one of
the two Essential fatty acids, so called because humans cannot manufacture it
and must get it from food. Omega-3 fatty acids are mostly obtained from oily
fish caught in high-latitude waters. They are comparatively uncommon in vegetable
sources, including margarine. However, one type of Omega-3 fatty acid,
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) can be found in some vegetable oils. Flax oil
contains -to-% of ALA, and is becoming a popular dietary supplement to rival
fish oils; both are often added to premium margarines. An ancient oil plant, camelina
sativa, has recently gained popularity because of its high Omega-3 content
(- to-%), and it has been added to some margarines. Hemp oil contains about -%
ALA. Small amounts of ALA are found in vegetable oils such as soybean oil (-%),
rapeseed oil (-%) and wheat germ oil (-%).
Omega-6 fatty acids.
Omega-6
fatty acids are also important for health. They include the essential fatty
acid linoleic acid (LA), which is abundant in vegetable oils grown in temperate
climates. Some, such as hemp (-%) and the common margarine oils corn (-%),
cottonseed (-%) and sunflower (-%), have large amounts, but most temperate
oil seeds have over -% LA. Margarine is very high in omega-6 fatty acids.
Modern Western diets are frequently quite high in Omega-6 but very deficient in
Omega-3. The omega-6 to omega-- ratio is typically - to -. Large amounts
of omega-6 decreases the effect of omega-3. Therefore it is recommended that
the ratio in the diet should be less than 4:1, although optimal ratio may be
closer to 1:1.
Tran’s
fat.
Unlike other dietary fats, trans fatty acids
are not essential and provide no known benefit to human health. There is a
positive linear trend between trans fatty acid intake and LDL cholesterol
concentration, and therefore increased risk of coronary heart disease, by
raising levels of LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of HDL cholesterol.
Several large studies have indicated
a link between consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart
disease, and possibly some other diseases,
prompting a number of
government health agencies across the world to recommend that the intake of
trans-fats be minimized.
In the US, partial hydrogenation has
been common as a result of preference for domestically produced oils. However,
since the mid-1990s, many countries around the world have started to move away
from using partially hydrogenated oils. This led to the
production of new margarine varieties that contain less or no Tran’s fat.
Cholesterols.
Excessive cholesterol is a health
risk because fatty deposits gradually clog the arteries. This will cause blood
flow to the brain, heart, kidneys and other parts of the body to become less
efficient. Cholesterol, though needed metabolically, is not essential in the
diet. The human body makes cholesterol in the liver, adapting the production
according to its food intake, producing about 1g of cholesterol each day or 80%
of the needed total body cholesterol. The remaining 20% comes directly from
food intake.
Therefore overall intake of
cholesterol as food has less effect on blood cholesterol levels than the type
of fat eaten. However, some
individuals are more responsive to dietary cholesterol than others. The US Food
and Drug Administration states that healthy people should not consume more than
300 mg of cholesterol each day.
Most margarines are vegetable-based
and thus contain no cholesterol. 100 grams of butter contains 178 mg
of cholesterol.
Plant
sterol esters and stanol esters
Plant sterol esters or plant stanol
esters have been added to some margarines and spreads because of their
cholesterol lowering effect. Several studies have indicated that consumption of
about 2 grams per day provides a reduction in LDL cholesterol of about
10%.
Market acceptance
Margarine, particularly
polyunsaturated margarine, has become a major part of the Western diet and has
overtaken butter in popularity in the mid-20th century In the United States, for example, in 1930,
the average person ate over 18 pounds (8.2 kg) of butter a year and just
over 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of margarine. By the end of the 20th century, an
average American ate around 5 lb (2.3 kg) of butter and nearly
8 lb (3.6 kg) of margarine.
Margarine has a particular market
value to those who observe the Jewish dietary laws of Kashrut. Kashrut forbids
the mixing of meat and dairy products; hence there are strictly Kosher
non-dairy margarines available. These are often used by the Kosher consumer to
adapt recipes that use meat and butter or in baked goods that will be served
with meat meals. The 2008 Passover margarine shortage in America caused much
consternation within the Kosher-observant community.
Margarine that doesn't contain dairy
products can also provide a vegan substitute for butter.
Hydrogenated vegetable oil used in soft margarine.
Hydrogenated vegetable oil
prevents margarine from melting and separating at room temperature.
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Most margarine is normally made by
making an emulsion of skimmed milk and vegetable oil. The first margarine was
actually made of mostly beef fat. I, for one, am glad they changed the recipe.
You can find more info at:
How butter and margarine are made.
Background Butter is a soft,
yellow-hued, edible emulsion of butterfat, water, air, and sometimes salt. It
is made from the churning of cream and is used as a spread as well as an.
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How is Margarine Made.
There is a process that it has to go through before it
becomes margarine, called hydrogenation. Low quality vegetable oils is used
these oils become spoiled with high temperature.
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Margarine is made of vegetable oils which are
obtained from plant fats and skim milk. These vegetable oils include corn,
cottonseed, soybeans, and safflower seeds
To make margarine from vegetable oil, start by
extracting oil from seeds such as: corn, canola or safflower. The oil is
steamed to destroy antioxidants and vitamins.
To make margarine from vegetable oil, start by extracting
oil from seeds such as: corn, canola or safflower. The oil is steamed to
destroy antioxidants and vitamins. Next, the oil is mixed with a highly toxic
substance called nickel, which acts as a catalyst. You will then put the oil in
a reactor, under very high temperatures and pressure through a process known as
emulsification hydrogenation. Emulsifiers are added to the oil so as to remove
the lumps and the oil is steamed again. Bleaching is done so as to get of the
grey color and synthetic vitamins and artificial colors are added.
Vegetable oils are made either
cold-pressed such as olive and sesame, and they are also refined. Refined oils
include safflower or canola.
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There are a variety of oils that are used in food
preparation and recipes. Vegetable oils are categorized as to their origin, and
cooking temperature.
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